Home → Publications → Reports → Research and public policy series → 56 → Non-partner violence: prevalence, severity and correlates of victimisation (in: Women's experiences of male violence : findings from the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS))
Women's experiences of male violence : findings from the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS)
Jenny Mouzos and Toni Makkai
ISBN 0 642 53842 5 ; ISSN 1326-6004
Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004
(Research and public policy series, no. 56)
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Chapter 4 : Non-partner violence: prevalence, severity and correlates of victimisation
While violence is a phenomenon that affects women in every society (Heise et al. 1999), most researchers and activists have focused predominantly on violence perpetrated by intimate partners. 'Rarely are we aware of the abuse that occurs beyond this intimate circle' (Dasgupta 1998: 211). Yet, there is a social perception that women are most at risk of experiencing some form of violence from a stranger, which perpetuates the fear of 'stranger danger'. There is tension between expert knowledge and social perceptions. Previous lethal and non-lethal violence research indicates that strangers do not pose the greatest threat. 'The primary threat to women's safety does not come from strangers' (Johnson 1996: 91). In Australia, women are least likely to be killed by a stranger (Polk 1994; Mouzos 1999; 2000; 2001; 2003). Similarly, prevalence estimates suggest that women are more likely to experience physical and/or sexual violence at the hands of a male known to them than by a male stranger (ABS 1996: 25). While previous intimate partners pose the greatest risk of violence to women, just under a quarter of women in the Women's Safety Survey (ABS 1996) who experienced physical violence since the age of 15 years reported that the perpetrator was another known male, such as a family member, friend, boss/co-worker. Strangers accounted for 16 per cent of the perpetrators of physical violence (ABS 1996).
Overseas surveys also reveal that women are most at risk of violence from someone they know, particularly intimates (Statistics Canada 1993; Tjaden & Thoennes 2000; Dobash & Dobash 1979; Gordon & Riger 1989; Kelly 1988). In Canada, the Violence Against Women Survey revealed that, since the age of 16, women experienced violence from non-strangers at twice the rate of strangers (Statistics Canada 1993). In comparison, results from the National Violence Against Women Survey in the United States found that 16 per cent of women who were raped, physically assaulted, and/or stalked since the age of 18 were victimised by an acquaintance, 15 per cent by a stranger and six per cent by a relative other than a spouse (Tjaden & Thoennes 2000). Others have cautioned 'we ought not to lose sight of the fact that much violence against women is at the hands of non-intimate partners' (Lauritsen & White 2001: 39).
This chapter examines women's experiences of physical and/or sexual violence by a male other than an intimate partner, such as a relative, a friend/acquaintance or work colleague or a stranger, in other words, a male other than a current or former intimate partner. This includes violence or threats of violence inflicted by:
- a relative, such as a father, step-father, son, brother, uncle, cousin, or some other relative;
- a friend or acquaintance, such as a work colleague, neighbour, schoolmate, or someone else known quite well; or
- a male not previously known, such as a stranger.13
Non-partner violence
Any non-partner violence
Forty-one per cent of all women (n=6,677) who participated in the IVAWS experienced violence from any non-partner (either a relative, friend, acquaintance or stranger) since the age of 16 years (Figure 20). This contrasts with 34 per cent of women who experienced violence from a current or former intimate partner. Another notable difference is that when women experienced violence from a partner, they were more likely to experience physical rather than sexual violence (see Figure 11). However, when the violence is from a non-partner, women reported similar levels of physical and sexual violence over the lifetime (27% respectively; Figure 20).
Figure 20 : Women's experiences of any non-partner violence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=6,677
Once a non-partner such as a stranger has assaulted a woman she has a significant risk of being assaulted again and even a third or fourth time (Johnson 1996: 92). Results from the IVAWS confirm previous findings; almost half of the women who experienced violence from any non-partner reported experiencing more than one type of violence (Figure 21). The women may have experienced more than one type of violence in the same incident or in another incident. A similar proportion of women reported only experiencing one type of violence (Figure 21).
Figure 21 : Women's experiences of one or more forms of any violence by a non-partner
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=6,677
An examination of the different forms of violence by non-partners indicates that unwanted sexual touching is the most common type of violence reported by women. Between 20 and 22 per cent of women who participated in the IVAWS reported that they had experienced unwanted sexual touching by a non-partner during the adult lifetime (Table 12). Threats of physical harm were the second most common type of violence reportedly experienced by women (17-19%). About half of the women who reported that a non-partner had threatened to physically harm them also experienced physical violence in the same or different incident (48%).
One in ten women also reported that a non-partner had pushed, grabbed, twisted their arm or pulled their hair at some time during the lifetime. Of particular relevance are the levels of non-partner violence experienced by women in the twelve months preceding the survey. A similar proportion of women reported experiencing threats of violence and unwanted sexual touching in the last twelve months (between 2 and 3%; Table 12). As very few women reported that a non-partner had attempted to strangle, suffocate or burn them, or force them to have sex with someone else in the last twelve months, the relative standard errors are quite high, rendering the estimates unreliable.
The following sections focus specifically on the prevalence of violence inflicted by a relative, friend/acquaintance or work colleague, or a stranger in order to identify whether women's experiences of violence differ based on the relationship distance between the victim and offender. While closest relationships seem to pose the greatest threat to women's safety, it is also pertinent to question whether males at the opposite end of the victim-offender relationship continuum, that is strangers, also posed a significant threat to these women's safety.
As specific victim-offender relationships are examined, the number of women who report experiencing the various types of violence from each perpetrator will tend to be small especially with regard to the five years and twelve months preceding the IVAWS survey. Small cell counts are subject to high relative standard errors, which mean that the estimates produced are unreliable for most purposes. The following discussion therefore focuses predominantly on lifetime prevalence estimates of violence inflicted by various categories of non-partners.
Violence by a relative
This section examines women's experiences since the age of 16 years of physical and sexual violence from a male relative, which includes a father/stepfather, uncle, cousin/cousin in law, brother/brother in law, son, father in law or other relative. Women's experiences of childhood violence will be explored in the following chapter. Overall, about one in ten women who participated in the IVAWS reported that they had been victimised by a relative on one or more occasions since the age of 16 years (Figure 22). Similar to the general patterns observed with regard to intimate partner violence, women who experienced violence by a relative were more likely to report experiencing physical (between 7 and 9%) rather than sexual violence (between 2 and 3%) on at least one occasion over the lifetime. Very few women reported that they had experienced more than one type of violence (1%; see Figure 21) from a relative, although when multiple forms of violence were experienced, it was usually threats followed by actual physical violence.
Figure 22 : Women's experiences of violence by a relative
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=6,677
The common types of violence experienced by women over a lifetime from a relative were threats of harm (4-6%), being pushed, grabbed, twisted arm, having hair pulled (3-4%), having something thrown at them or hit with something (2-3%), slapped, kicked, bitten, or hit with a fist (2-3%; Table 13), or unwanted sexual touching (2%; Table 14). While the cell counts are too small to provide detailed estimates according to the particular relative involved, a father or stepfather, followed by a brother were the usual males involved in such violence. There were however a couple of exceptions. A higher proportion of brothers-in-law than all other relatives were involved in the perpetration of attempted forced intercourse, and a higher proportion of unwanted sexual touching was carried out by uncles.
Violence by any other known male
Women reported experiencing violence from a range of other known males, other than relatives. About a quarter of the women who participated in the IVAWS reported that they had experienced at least one incident of violence from a friend, acquaintance or work colleague over the lifetime (23%; Figure 23). A different pattern emerges when the type of violence is examined: women are more likely to experience sexual violence than physical violence from another known male (Figure 23). One out of five women reported that they had experienced at least one form of sexual violence from a friend, acquaintance or work colleague since the age of 16 years (18%), compared to one out of ten women who reported experiencing at least one form of physical violence (11%). Prevalence estimates of sexual violence against women were also higher during the five years preceding the survey compared to physical violence estimates. There were no differences in the proportion of women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence from any other known male during the 12 months preceding the survey (about 2%).
Figure 23 : Women's experiences of violence by a friend, acquaintance or work colleague
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=6,677
Five per cent of all women experienced more than one type of violence from a friend, acquaintance or work colleague (Figure 21). As the overall patterns indicate, the most common type of violence experienced by the women from any other known male over the lifetime was unwanted sexual touching (between 12 and 13%; Table 14). This was followed by threats of physical harm, reported by between six and seven per cent of women (Table 13). Over one third of women who were threatened also experienced an incident of actual physical violence.
Following threats of physical harm, the next most common type of violence experienced by women in the IVAWS was attempted forced intercourse, with between four and five per cent of women reporting that they had experienced this type of violence from any other known male over the lifetime (Table 14). A further 2-3 per cent of women reported that a friend, acquaintance or work colleague had forced them to have sexual intercourse on at least one occasion (Table 14).
Violence by a stranger
It has been suggested in the literature that stranger violence in public places is behind most fear of crime for women (Tulloch et al. 1998), and that according to news accounts, stranger violence is commonplace (Reidel 1987). About one in five women who participated in the IVAWS reported that since the age of 16 years, a stranger had victimised them on at least one occasion (Figure 24). This reduces to three per cent in the last twelve months. Only four per cent of the women experienced more than one type of stranger violence (Figure 21).
Figure 24 : Women's experiences of violence by a stranger
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=6,677
Previous Canadian research finds that 'the biggest threat by far that women experience from strangers is the threat of sexual violence' (Johnson 1996: 92). Results derived from the IVAWS are to the contrary. Almost the same proportion of women who experienced sexual violence reported experiencing physical violence (11% and 13% respectively; Figure 24).
Threats of physical harm were the most common type of violence committed by strangers (8-9%; Table 13). Over a third of women who were threatened by a stranger also experienced an actual incident of physical violence. The second most common type of violence was unwanted sexual touching, with between seven and nine per cent of women having experienced this during their lifetime (Table 14). Few women reported that they were raped by a stranger (1%; Table 14).
Another finding worth noting was that less than three in one hundred women surveyed indicated that a stranger had used or threatened to use a knife or gun against them in their lifetime (2-3%; Table 13). While the IVAWS did not ask women specific questions as to whether they experienced violence from a stranger during the course of another crime, it is well known that the most common motive for stranger violence is robbery (Cook 1987; 1990). In Australia, two-thirds of crime homicides (that is, homicides that occurred during the course of another crime, such as a robbery or sexual assault) involved a victim and offender who were not known to each other (Mouzos 2003).
Severity of non-partner violence
While it has been documented that intimate partners pose the greatest risk of injury to women, few studies have focused on the level and type of injury sustained by women from a male other than an intimate partner. As indicated in the previous chapter, the IVAWS collected injury information in relation to the woman's most recent incident of non-partner violence. About 2778 women reported that they had experienced non-partner violence. These women subsequently provided details in relation to the most recent incident that they experienced.
Physical injuries sustained
Sixteen per cent of women who experienced non-partner violence reported that they were injured in the most recent incident of violence (Figure 25). Women were more than twice as likely to sustain injuries from an intimate partner than a non-partner (40% versus 16%). This is consistent with results from both the Canadian Violence Against Women Survey and the National Crime Victim Survey in the United States. The Canadian Violence Against Women Survey reported that a higher proportion of wife assault incidents (45%) resulted in injury than did other sexual or physical assaults amongst the women surveyed (Statistics Canada 1993). Similarly, results from the National Crime Victim Survey found that 52 per cent of women of the women surveyed sustained injuries from an intimate partner compared to 26 per cent from a friend or acquaintance, and 20 per cent from a stranger (Bachman & Saltzman 1995).
When women who participated in the IVAWS reported being injured from a non-partner, they were more likely to sustain the injuries during an incident involving physical rather than sexual violence (22% versus 13%; Figure 25).
Figure 25 : Women who experienced non-partner violence by type of violence and whether they sustained injuries in the most recent incident
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=2,778
The risk of injury posed by non-partners varies based on the relational distance between the victim and offender. Other relatives - the closest group to the victims of all non-partners - present the greatest risk of injury, at 29 per cent (Figure 26). On the other hand, strangers - with the greatest relational distance between the victim and offender - pose the least risk of injury. About 13 per cent of women who experienced violence from a stranger reported that they were injured during the most recent incident (Figure 26).
Figure 26 : Women who experienced non-partner violence by whether they sustained injuries during the most recent incident
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=2,778
Type of injuries sustained
The type of injuries sustained by women who experienced non-partner and intimate partner violence were minor in nature. Bruises and associated swelling were sustained by 77 per cent of women in the IVAWS (Figure 27). A quarter reported sustaining cuts, scratches and burns during the most recent incident. Broken bones or a broken nose were less common in these incidents compared to intimate partner violence (4% versus 10%). In contrast, a higher proportion of women sustained internal injuries during non-partner violence than during partner violence (10% versus 6%). About one-quarter of women who sustained injuries were injured so badly that they required medical attention (24%).
Figure 27 : Women who were injured by a non-partner by type of injuries sustained
* Other injury includes: pregnancy (0.5%); post-traumatic stress disorder (2%); lost virginity (1%) and other (1%)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=450
Fewer women who experienced non-partner violence reported that they felt that their life was in danger during the most recent incident as compared to women who experienced intimate partner violence (21% versus 30%; Figure 28). Differences also emerged depending on the male involved. Women who experienced violence from a stranger were more likely than women who experienced violence from any other known male to report that they felt that their life was in danger during the most recent incident (Figure 28). Women are least likely to sustain injuries from a stranger, but are more likely to fear strangers and to fear for their lives during an incident of violence. While this suggests that women's fear of strangers is not equivalent to the threat they face, there may be other factors that intensify women's fear of strangers. This will be discussed in the next section of this chapter.
Figure 28 : Women who experienced non-partner violence by whether they felt their life was in danger during the most recent incident
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=2,740
Correlates of non-partner victimisation
In the previous chapter a number of risk markers were identified for intimate partner victimisation. This section examines some of the correlates of non-partner victimisation, with the aim of identifying the common characteristics of women who experienced non-partner violence. Unlike intimate partner violence, which usually involves premeditated violence directed at a specific individual, stranger violence is a more random and spontaneous event (Easteal 1993; Reiss & Roth 1993). While stranger violence is only one aspect of non-partner violence, this has important implications in terms of reducing fear and victimisation. Theory suggests that women who have a greater exposure to known males (other than intimate partners) and strangers through both private and public interactions are more vulnerable to victimisation. In accordance with the routine activities theory, age (being young), and marital status (being unmarried) are potential risk markers for non-partner victimisation (Cohen & Felson 1979).
Characteristics of the most recent incident
Prior to examining some of the socio-demographic factors associated with non-partner victimisation, the following brief discussion provides some context in terms of the characteristics of the most recent incident of non-partner violence experienced by women who participated in the IVAWS.
Most incidents of intimate partner violence occur within the privacy of one's home, and this is no different for incidents involving a relative. Nine out of ten women reported that the most recent incident of violence from a relative occurred in a residential location, usually in their own home (Figure 29). In contrast, 38 per cent of women who experienced violence from some other known male reported that it occurred in a residential location, compared to only ten per cent of women who experienced stranger violence. Consistent with routine activities theory, the majority of women who experienced stranger violence reported that the most recent incident occurred in a public place (street/alley, parking lot, bar/dance club/pool hall, public transport or other public building; 64%). Twenty-nine per cent of women who reported violence from a friend, acquaintance or work colleague indicated that the violence occurred at work or school (Figure 29).
Figure 29 : Location of the most recent incident of non-partner violence
* Public place includes: street/alley, parking lot, bar/dance club/pool hall, rural areas, beach, other public building and public transport
** Other location includes: car, hotel/motel, social function, or other location
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=2,778
In addition to the differences associated with the location of the most recent incident of non-partner violence, there was also disparity in the number of males involved in the incident (Figure 30). As the relational distance between the victim and offender increases, so too does the proportion of incidents involving multiple offenders. None of the most recent incidents of violence perpetrated by relatives involved more than one offender. In comparison, almost one out of five most recent stranger perpetrated incidents involved more than one offender (Figure 30). Research in the United States also notes that strangers were more likely to have co-offenders when committing the violence (Craven 1997).
Figure 30 : Number of males involved in the most recent incident of non-partner violence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, IVAWS 2002/03 weighted data [computer file], n=2,778
Violence perpetrated by strangers is more likely to occur in a public place and to involve multiple offenders as compared to incidents involving other relatives or other known men. These factors combined can serve to increase the level of fear that women may feel in an incident of stranger violence, irrespective of whether or not they sustain injuries. Research also suggests that fear is not necessarily linked to injury but to the 'unknown' (Johnson 1996).
While the IVAWS does not ask women to describe the drinking habits of non-partners, it does collect information on whether the non-partner(s) had been using drugs or drinking at time of the most recent incident of violence. The results indicate that 32 per cent of women reported that the perpetrator(s) were drinking alcohol, 3 per cent were using drugs, 5 per cent were both drinking alcohol and using drugs, and 40 per cent were not drinking or using drugs during the most recent incident of violence. A further 20 per cent could not recall whether the perpetrator was drinking or using drugs during the most recent incident of violence.
Factors associated with non-partner violence
Table 15 presents the estimates of non-partner violence during the 12 months preceding the survey based on the socio-demographic characteristics of the women. In accord with previous research and theoretical expectations, differences in levels of risk were found for two of the socio-demographic characteristics examined: age and marital status (Table 15). Young women aged 18 to 24 years reported the highest levels of violence from a non-partner during the 12 months preceding the survey (15-20%) compared to women in all other age groups. The level of violence reported by this group of women was two and a half times the national average of seven per cent of all women (see Figure 20 and Table 15), and more than twice the rate for women in the next age group (15-20% compared to 6-9%). Women aged 55-69 years reported the lowest levels of violence from a non-partner (1-3%).
Single women and women who were in a dating relationship also reported higher than average levels of violence from a non-partner (Table 15). Women who were married reported the lowest levels of violence from a non-partner (2-3%). Given that many of the single women are also young and dating, the higher level of violence is not unexpected.
There was little reported difference in levels of non-partner violence according to women's educational attainment or combined household income per week. However, women who were working for pay reported slightly higher levels of non-partner violence during the past twelve months (7-8% versus 4-6%). This finding can be explained with reference to routine activities theory, which suggests that one's paid work or recreational pursuits can increase the risk of victimisation by a non-partner because of increased exposure to potential offenders. Twenty-nine per cent of women who were victimised by a known male and one in ten women victimised by a stranger reported that the most recent incident had occurred at work or school (see Figure 29).
What emerges from this analysis is that certain groups of women have an elevated risk of experiencing non-partner violence in Australia. Young single women or those who are dating appear to be at greatest risk of violence from a relative, friend, acquaintance, work colleague or stranger. Contrary to common stereotypes that unemployment, low income and low educational attainment lead to a greater risk of violence for women, the interviews with these women indicate that only age and marital status are consistent risk markers. The lifestyles and activities of young single women are different to those of older married women: younger women have greater opportunities to socialise with known men and strangers and to interact in public spaces. Their exposure to potential violent situations is therefore also greater.
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