Out-of-school suspension from primary school and early contact with police

URLs correct as at September 2025

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Graham LJ, Killingly C, Alexander M & Wiggans S 2024. Suspensions in QLD state schools, 2016–2020: Overrepresentation, intersectionality and disproportionate risk. Australian Educational Researcher 51: 1527–1558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-023-00652-6

Graham LJ, Killingly C, Laurens KR & Sweller N 2023. Overrepresentation of Indigenous students in school suspension, exclusion, and enrolment cancellation in Queensland: Is there a case for systemic inclusive school reform? Australian Educational Researcher 50: 167–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-021-00504-1

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Hemphill SA et al. 2013. Does school suspension affect subsequent youth non‐violent antisocial behaviour? A longitudinal study of students in Victoria, Australia and Washington State, United States. Australian Journal of Psychology 65(4): 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12026

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Hemphill SA, Plenty SM, Herrenkohl TI, Toumbourou JW & Catalano RF 2014. Student and school factors associated with school suspension: A multilevel analysis of students in Victoria, Australia and Washington State, United States. Children and Youth Services Review 36: 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.11.022

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Laurens KR et al. 2021. Early childhood predictors of elementary school suspension: An Australian record linkage study. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 77: 101343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101343

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Novak A & Fagan A 2022. Expanding research on the school-to-prison pipeline: Examining the relationships between suspension, expulsion, and recidivism among justice-involved youth. Crime & Delinquency 68(1): 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721999334

NSW Department of Education 2023. Full year 2021 suspensions and expulsions. https://data.nsw.gov.au/data/dataset/nsw-education-suspensions-and-expulsions-in-nsw-government-schools/resource/95afcaf3-3b52-47cb-b860-63b6cb732ff3

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Vanderhaar J, Munoz M & Petrosko J 2014. Reconsidering the alternatives: The relationship between suspension, disciplinary alternative school placement, subsequent juvenile detention, and the salience of race. Journal of Applied Research on Children 5(2): 14. https://doi.org/10.58464/2155-5834.1218

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Wolf KC & Kupchik A 2017. School suspensions and adverse experiences in adulthood. Justice Quarterly 34(3): 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1168475