Strengthening Australia's criminal justice response to modern slavery: A rapid assessment

URLs correct as at March 2026

AFP—see Australian Federal Police

Anitha S, Gill AK & Noack-Lundberg K 2023. Understanding protection and prevention responses to forced marriage in England and Wales. Lincoln and Bristol: University of Lincoln & University of Bristol. https://fmpo.blogs.lincoln.ac.uk/publications/

Annison R 2013. In the dock: Examining the UK’s criminal justice response to trafficking. London: Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group 2013. https://www.antislavery.org/reports/in-the-dock-examining-the-uks-criminal-justice-response-to-trafficking/

Anti-Slavery Australia 2016. Visas for trafficked people: The Australian response. Sydney: Anti-Slavery Australia. https://antislavery.org.au/visas-for-trafficked-people-the-australian-response/

Askola H 2018. Responding to vulnerability? Forced marriage and the law. UNSW Law Journal 41(3): 977–1002. https://doi.org/10.53637/IPTD3484

Attorney-General’s Department 2025. Overview of state and territory victims of crime financial assistance schemes and their availability to victims and survivors of modern slavery. Canberra: Attorney-General’s Department. https://www.ag.gov.au/crime/publications/overview-state-and-territory-victims-crime-financial-assistance-schemes

Attorney-General’s Department 2024. Enhancing civil protections and remedies for forced marriage: Consultation paper. Canberra: Attorney-General’s Department. https://consultations.ag.gov.au/integrity/forced-marriage/

Attorney-General’s Department 2023. Targeted review of modern slavery offences in Divisions 270 and 271 of the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth). Canberra: Attorney-General’s Department. https://consultations.ag.gov.au/crime/modern-slavery-offences/

Australian Federal Police 2026. Human trafficking and slavery. https://www.afp.gov.au/crimes/human-trafficking-and-people-smuggling/human-trafficking-and-slavery

Australian Federal Police 2025. National Operations State Service Centre. https://www.afp.gov.au/our-services/national-policing-services

Australian Federal Police 2023. Human trafficking reports continue to increase in Australia. Media release, 8 December. https://www.afp.gov.au/news-centre/media-release/human-trafficking-reports-continue-increase-australia

Australian Government 2020. National Action Plan to Combat Modern Slavery 2020–25. Canberra: Australian Government. https://www.ag.gov.au/crime/publications/national-action-plan-combat-modern-slavery-2020-25

Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights 2019. Child and forced marriage: A guide for professionals working with the Muslim community. Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights. https://amwchr.org.au/resources/?_sft_all_topics=early-forced-marriage&_sft_language=english

Barnes J, Naser MM & Aston J 2023. A vulnerability approach to irregular migration and modern slavery in Australia. Australian Journal of Human Rights 29(1): 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2023.2229619

Boxall H, Lyneham S, Black C & Gannoni A 2023. Sexual exploitation in Australia: Victim-survivor support needs and barriers to support provision. Research Report no. 29. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/rr77154

Bricknell S & McDonald A 2025. Modern slavery in Australia 2024–25. Statistical Report no. 56. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/sr78205

Burn J, McLeod F & Knackstredt N 2016. Report on establishing a national compensation scheme for victims of Commonwealth crime. Sydney: Anti-Slavery Australia. https://antislavery.org.au/report-on-establishing-a-national-compensation-scheme-for-victims-of-commonwealth-crime/

Chazal N & Raby K 2024. Modern slavery in Australia. Chatswood: LexisNexis

Chazal N, Raby K & Spasovska E 2023. ‘I’m all about my child’: Supporting modern slavery survivors as parents. Journal of Human Trafficking. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2023.2279875

Cockayne J, Kagan S & Ng F 2024. Be our guests: Addressing urgent modern slavery risks for temporary migrant workers in rural and regional New South Wales. Sydney: Office of the NSW Anti-slavery Commissioner. https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lc/tabledpapers/Pages/tabled-paper-details.aspx?pk=189374

Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (CDPP) 2025. What is the role of the Witness Assistance Service? https://victimsandwitnesses.cdpp.gov.au/your-role-and-prosecution/people-involved-prosecution-process/what-role-witness-assistance-service

David F 2007. Law enforcement responses to trafficking in persons: Challenges and emerging good practice. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 347. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi347

Davy D 2017. Justice for victims of human trafficking in Australia? Issues associated with Australia’s criminal justice response to trafficking in persons. Contemporary Justice Review 20(1): 115–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2016.1262773

Davy D, Schwarz K, Baumeister H, Valverde-Cano A & Peake K 2020. What works to end modern slavery? A review of evidence on policy and interventions in the context of justice. Nottingham: University of Nottingham Rights Lab. https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/beacons-of-excellence/rights-lab/resources/reports-and-briefings/2021/february/crisis-evidence-review.pdf

Demeke S 2024. A human rights-based approach for effective criminal justice response to human trafficking. Journal of International Humanitarian Action 9(4): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-023-00143-4

Department of Home Affairs 2025. Australian Government Endorsed Events (Workplace Justice Pilot). https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/getting-a-visa/visa-listing/temporary-activity-408/australian-government-endorsed-events-workplace-justice-pilot

Department of Home Affairs 2024a. Strengthening Reporting Protections Pilot. https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/working-in-australia/work-rights-and-exploitation/strengthening-reporting-protections-pilot

Department of Home Affairs 2024b. Targeted review of Australia’s visa framework to identify and reduce vulnerabilities to human trafficking and modern slavery. Canberra: Department of Home Affairs. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-pubs/files/targeted-review-napai20.pdf

Department of Social Services 2025. Support for Trafficked People Program. https://www.dss.gov.au/human-trafficking-and-slavery/support-trafficked-people-program

Ditmore M & Thukral J 2012. Accountability and the use of raids to fight trafficking. Anti-Trafficking Review 1: 134–148. https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201218

Dowling C 2024. Police training in responding to family, domestic and sexual violence. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 689. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/ti77390

Ezeilo JN 2012. Report of the Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children, Joy Ngozi Ezeilo: Mission to Australia. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/20/18/Add.1

Farrell A et al. 2012. Identifying challenges to improve the investigation and prosecution of state and local human trafficking cases. Boston: Northeastern University Institute on Race and Justice. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25526/412593-Identifying-Challenges-to-Improve-the-Investigation-and-Prosecution-of-State-and-Local-Human-Trafficking-Cases.pdf

Farrell A, McDevitt J & Fahy S 2010. Where are all the victims? Criminology & Public Policy 9(2): 201–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00621.x

Farrell A, McDevitt J & Fahy S 2008. Understanding and improving law enforcement responses to human trafficking. Boston: Northeastern University Institute on Race and Justice. https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/understanding-and-improving-law-enforcement-responses-human-trafficking-final

Farrell A, Owens C & McDevitt J 2014. New laws but few cases: Understanding the challenges to the investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases. Crime, Law and Social Change 61: 139–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-013-9442-1

Fitzgibbon G, Fitzgibbon A & Wijesinghe D 2025. Child trafficking in Australia: The story of classification. Melbourne: ZOE Foundation Australia. https://www.gozoe.org.au/publications/

Gallagher AT & Karlebach N 2011. Prosecution of trafficking in persons cases: Integrating a human rights-based approach in the administration of criminal justice. Background Paper. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/Geneva2011BP_GallagherAndKarlebach.pdf

George E, Tsourtos G & McNaughton D 2018. ‘It’s just about the crime, not the victim’: Critical insights from Australian service providers working with people who have been trafficked. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 30(1): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2018.12036104

Gren-Jardan T & Gleich L 2022. A path to freedom and justice: A new vision for supporting victims of modern slavery. London: Justice and Care. https://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/library/supporting-victims-of-modern-slavery

Guthdrige M & Vidal L 2018. Without choice: Examining forced marriage in Australia. Melbourne: RMIT University & Salvation Army Freedom Partnership. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.29783.83367

Heys A 2025. Barriers to prosecutions and convictions under the Modern Slavery Act 2015. Oxford: Modern Slavery and Human Rights Policy and Evidence Centre, University of Oxford. https://www.modernslaverypec.org/resources/prosecutions-modern-slavery-act

Home Office 2014. Modern Slavery Strategy. London: Home Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/modern-slavery-strategy

Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons 2020. Non-punishment of victims of trafficking. Issue Brief no. 8. https://icat.un.org/publications

Irwin N 2017. Police officer understandings of human trafficking and awareness of anti-trafficking measures. Policing: An International Journal 40(2): 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2015-0100

Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade (JSCFADT) 2021. Advocating for the elimination of child and forced marriage: Interim report for the inquiry into certain aspects of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade annual report 2019–20. Canberra: Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/ForeignAffAR19-20CFM/Interim_Report

Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 2017. Hidden in plain sight: An inquiry into establishing a Modern Slavery Act in Australia. Canberra: Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/ModernSlavery/
Final_report

Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 2013. Trading lives: Modern day human trafficking: Inquiry of the Human Rights Sub-Committee. Canberra: Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House_of_Representatives_Committees?url=jfadt/slavery_people_trafficking/report.htm

Joudo Larsen J, Renshaw L, Gray-Barry S, Andrevski H & Corsbie T 2012. Trafficking in persons monitoring report: January 2009–June 2011. Monitoring report no. 19. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/mr/mr19

JSCFADT—see Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade

Jurek AL & King WR 2020. Structural responses to gendered social problems: Police agency adaptations to human trafficking. Police Quarterly 23(1): 25–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611119873093

Lyneham S 2021. Attrition of human trafficking and slavery cases through the Australian criminal justice system. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 640. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/ti78443

Lyneham S & Bricknell S 2018. When saying no is not an option: Forced marriage in Australia and New Zealand. Research Report no. 11. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/rr201723

Lyneham S, Dowling C & Bricknell S 2019. Estimating the dark figure of human trafficking and slavery victimisation in Australia. Statistical Bulletin no. 16. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/sb09388

McDonald A & Bricknell S 2025. Modern slavery in Australia 2022–23. Statistical Report no. 54. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/sr78052

Mebalds G & Garcia-Daza L 2021. Barriers in accommodating survivors of modern slavery: Working towards safe, suitable, and sustainable housing. Australian Red Cross. https://www.redcross.org.au/globalassets/cms/migration-support/support-for-trafficked-people/barriers-in-accommodating-survivors-of-modern-slavery.pdf

Moore H 2018. Building local responses to trafficking and slavery. Salvation Army

Moore H, Segrave M, Hedwards B & Milivojevic S 2019. Australia’s response to human trafficking nationally and regionally: The question of impact. In JB Clark & S Poucki (eds), The Sage handbook of human trafficking and modern day slavery. London: Sage Publications: 434–452

Nelson J & Burn J 2024. Forced marriage in Australia: Building a social response with frontline workers. Social & Legal Studies 33(1): 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/09646639241242125

Nichols AJ & Heil EJ 2024. An integrated model of human trafficking response in the prosecution process: restorative justice, therapeutic jurisprudence, survivor centered practice and anti‑oppressive practice. Crime, Law and Social Change 81: 231–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-023-10114-w

Nixon C 2023. Rapid review into the exploitation of Australia’s visa system. Canberra: Department of Home Affairs. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-publications/reviews-and-inquiries/departmental-reviews/rapid-review-exploitation-visa-system

Obokata T 2025. Visit to Australia: Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, Tomoya Obokata. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/60/28/Add.1

Office for Women 2025. Ninth periodic report submitted by Australia under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Canberra: Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. https://www.pmc.gov.au/resources/ninth-periodic-report-to-cedaw

Office of the NSW Anti-slavery Commissioner 2023. Working together for real freedom: NSW Anti-slavery Commissioner’s strategic plan 2023–2026. Sydney: Office of the NSW Anti-slavery Commissioner. https://dcj.nsw.gov.au/documents/legal-and-justice/anti-slavery-commissioner/plans-and-discussion-papers/working-together-for-real-freedom-nsw-anti-slavery-commissioners-strategic-plan-2023-2026.pdf

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) 2010. Recommended principles and guidelines on human rights and human trafficking. Geneva: OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/Traffickingen.pdf

OHCHR—see Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 2010. Analysing the business model of trafficking in human beings to better prevent the crime. Vienna: OSCE. https://www.osce.org/cthb/69028

Parliamentary Joint Committee on Law Enforcement (PJCLE) 2017. An inquiry into human trafficking, slavery and slavery-like practices. Canberra: Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Law_Enforcement/Humantrafficking45/Report

Piotrowicz RW & Sorrentino L 2016. Human trafficking and the emergence of the non-punishment principle. Human Rights Law Review 16(4): 669–699. https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngw028

PJCLE—see Parliamentary Joint Committee on Law Enforcement

Raby K, Chazal N, Garcia-Daza L & Mebalds G 2023. ‘No income, temporary visa, and too many triggers’: Barriers in accommodating survivors of human trafficking and slavery in Australia. Anti-Trafficking Review 20: 92–110. https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201223206

Rishworth A, Dreyfus M & Elliot J 2023. Boosting support for victim-survivors of human trafficking. Media release, 16 May. https://ministers.dss.gov.au/media-releases/11236

Salvation Army & Anti-Slavery Australia nd. FAQs: General Public. Salvation Army & Anti-Slavery Australia. https://www.salvationarmy.org.au/additional-referral-pathway/

Schloenhardt A & Markey-Towler R 2016. Non-criminalisation of victims of trafficking in persons: Principles, promises, and perspectives. Groningen Journal of International Law 4(1): 10–38. https://doi.org/10.21827/59db68fc35c13

Segrave M 2017. Temporary migration and family violence: An analysis of victimisation, vulnerability and support. Melbourne: Monash University. https://www.monash.edu/arts/gender-and-family-violence/-archived-research-and-projects/temporary-migration-and-family-violence-an-analysis-of-victimisation,-support-and-vulnerability

Segrave M, Milivojevic S & Pickering S 2018. Sex trafficking and modern slavery: The absence of evidence. Oxford: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315542560

Senate Education and Employment References Committee 2016. A national disgrace: The exploitation of temporary work visa holders. Canberra: Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/senate/education_and_employment/temporary_work_visa/report

Simmons F, Burn J & McLeod F 2022. Modern slavery and material justice: The case for remedy and reparation. UNSW Law Journal 45(1): 184–208. https://doi.org/10.53637/WGYR1275

Singhateh M 2022. A practical approach to addressing the sale and sexual exploitation of children. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4951-practical-approach-addressing-sale-and-sexual-exploitation

Tan SJ & Vidal L 2023. Forced marriage as a form of family violence in Victoria. Melbourne: Monash Gender and Family Violence Prevention Centre, Monash University. https://www.monash.edu/arts/gender-and-family-violence/-archived-research-and-projects/forced-marriage-as-a-form-of-family-violence-in-victoria

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2024. Global report on trafficking in persons 2024. Vienna: United Nations. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/glotip.html

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2017. Evidential issues in trafficking in persons cases. Vienna: United Nations. https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/2017/Case_Digest_Evidential_Issues_in_Trafficking.pdf

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2008. Toolkit to combat trafficking in persons. New York: United Nations. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/643044

United States Department of State 2025. 2025 Trafficking in persons report. Washington, DC: United States Department of State. https://www.state.gov/reports/2025-trafficking-in-persons-report/

UNODC—see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Unseen 2023. Annual assessment 2022. Bristol: Unseen. https://www.unseenuk.org/helpline-statistics/annual-assessment-2022/

Van Dyke R & Brachou A 2021. What looks promising for tackling modern slavery: A review of practice-based research. London: St Mary’s University. https://iasctoolkit.nottingham.ac.uk/assets/reports/

Vidal L 2017. Developing innovative, best practice solutions to address forced marriage in Australia. Canberra: Winston Churchill Memorial Trust. https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/fellow/laura-vidal-nsw-2016/

Voce A & Morgan A 2025. The costs of serious and organised crime in Australia, 2023–24. Statistical Report no. 55. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/78113

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